Current research and latest developments on refractories used as ladle linings

Non-metallic inclusions significantly influence the properties of steels. Take heavy rail steel as an example, Al₂O₃ inclusions can become fatigue source under cyclic stress, resulting in the rupture of the steel. Existing technologies and equipment can effectively reduce the amount and harm brought about by such inclusions, but they cannot guarantee the complete removal of large-sized and high-melting-temperature inclusions. Large-sized non-metallic inclusions give rise to instability in high-quality steels; as such, they are one of the bottlenecks in the development of steel. In the steel-making process, refractories in close contact with molten steel are a main source of large-sized non-metallic inclusions. Therefore, adopting appropriate ladle-lining refractories for refining and alloying is vital. This paper summarized the current research and latest developments in refractories used as ladle linings, and analyzed the application background and existing problems of traditional ladle lining refractories. Based on this discussion, future research directions regarding refractories suitable for the smelting of ultra-low-oxygen steel (or clean steel) as well as approaches to precisely control refractory properties via the reasonable selection of material components and structures were then provided. Novel ladle-lining refractories must possess not only excellent thermomechanical properties but also the ability to purify molten steel.